Language Orientations of Chilean Secondary Students in Relation to the Study of English as a Foreign Language

Procedures

Word Selection: Obtaining the stimuli for the creation of the cards was crucial to complete the card sorting. For this, the initial phase of the study included semi-structured interviews held with five university EFL education students who were completing or who had completed their student teaching practicum. With the descriptive coding of the interview transcripts, 33 codes which represented different beliefs, values and concepts about the teaching and learning of English were selected to be utilised in the field study card-sorting activity.

Data Collection: With the finalised list of stimuli and upon receiving authorisation by the administration and guardians of the participating students, the card-sorting activity was implemented with high school students at four different schools located in the city of Chillan, Chile. During the activity, the researcher provided each student volunteering a bag with 33 cards which represented the different stimuli previously identified and were instructed to sort the cards into diverse groups on the basis of a personally identified similarity with the only rule being that they could not sort the cards on the basis of a grammatical similarity (ex: no grouping of verbs). The students identified their different groups using the numbering of the stimuli and recorded this information on a translated and culturally-adapted version of the card-sorting instrument designed and used by Kono (2001). Once finished, the students were asked to complete a demographic questionnaire.

Data Verification: The semi-structured interviews were used with students from each of the four schools to verify the clustering and conceptual understanding of each of the language orientations identified from the card-sorting activity. In total, 16 students were interviewed from the different establishments as part of the verification process.

Participants

As there was a belief that the socio-economic level could be connected to the diverse language orientations held, the students were selected to represent diverse socio-economic levels and were identified using the SES levels reported for the Chilean schools by the Agencia de Calidad on the national SIMCE (Sistema de Medición de la Calidad de la Educación) assessment. Thus, the research activities took place at four governmentally subsidised schools representing the middle, middlelow and low socio-economic levels. The Agencia de Calidad classifies socio-economic status on the basis of the number of years of schooling of the guardians, the reported monthly income and the percentage of the students at the school categorised as at-risk. School #1 was a vocational–technical high school which represented a low socio-economic level with 71.1% to 100% of the students considered at-risk and with the majority of the guardians declaring a monthly salary of 340.000 clp. School #2 being an establishment with a heavier focus on the teaching of English was classified as having a middle socioeconomic level, similar to school #3 which did not have this additional focus on the teaching of English. The guardians of both schools reported a monthly income of 490.000 to 740.000 clp, and as institutions, the schools had between 36.01% and 54% of their students considered to be atrisk. School #4 was classified with a low-middle socio-economic level with the guardians declaring a monthly income of 340.000 to 490.000 clp and with 54.01% to 71% of the students deemed at-risk. Due to the need for deeper level analysis in the cardsorting activity, the participants were high school students, and in total, 283 students participated in the card-sorting activity of which 130 (48.1%) were female, 136 (45.9%) were male and 17 (6%) did not report their gender.

Data Analysis

For the data analysis, hierarchal cluster analysis (HCA) and MDS were used with the SPSS Statistics Version 22 software. These two analysis techniques are commonly cited as being mutually complementary as they both help visualise cluster formation but with different focuses, where hierarchical cluster analysis focuses on the smaller distances between the individual codes whilst MDS focuses on the larger distances between the clusters themselves (Kruskal & Wish, 1978, in Kono, 2001, p.103). HCA and MDS are techniques which analyse the perceived similarity that participants find between different codes as expressed through the groupings of the codes. To run both of these analysis techniques, the data collected from each school first had to be transformed into matrices using a dichotomous structure representing perceived similarity or lack thereof. After the transformation of the data, the dendrograms were produced with HCA using the average linkage, and the derived stimulus configurations were produced with MDS.

One of the benefits to using HCA is that the number of clusters was not needed a priori (Yim & Ramdeen, 2015). This was pivotal as one of the principal aims of this study was to identify the language orientations that existed amongst the students in the cultural environment being studied; thus, the different clades identified in the dendrogram tree diagram represented the language orientations conceived by the EFL students. Whilst the number of clusters was not selected a priori, the results from a pilot study helped understand the possible number of clusters and thus calculate the minimal sample needed for a more reliable dendrogram. According to Formann (1984), the sample size should be at least 2. and preferably 5*2., where C represents the number of clusters (in Dolnicar, 2002), meaning that if there were five clusters as seen in the pilot study, a minimum of 32 participants were needed.

Unfortunately, HCA has its limitations: once a decision is made about the linkage between two variables, this decision thus affects the rest of the dendrogram formation, which is important to consider when reviewing the results. For the verification of the reliability of the dendrograms, random samples of each of the four data groups were analysed with the same linkage technique to confirm the cluster formation of the original samples, allowing the researcher to ensure that the behaviour of the data did not change upon removing random data points from the analysis. More importantly though, the dendrograms were also verified with the inclusion of MDS and the production of the derived stimulus configurations which are spatial maps that represent the cluster formation and distances (or dissimilarity) between the different clusters. For the MDS analysis and the dimension selection, the study considered the stress and the interpretability of the graphs, following Kruskal’s (1964) stress criterion and recommendation for the use of the t-dimension over the t+1 dimension if the improved stress level does not provide any additional information about the structure.

Biographical Data Analysis Results

Before evaluating the language orientations identified by the students, a biographical analysis was completed to understand how the students’ connection with English outside of the classroom was similar or different across the four different institutions. Due to the previous supposition that the socio-economic level of the students could influence their language orientations, they were surveyed about the use of English by their family and friends as well as travel experience and interaction with native speakers. The results are summarised below in Table 1, where it is seen that higher socioeconomic levels represented by schools #2 and #3 do have a slightly greater connection with the language, especially in terms of travel opportunities and with friends who speak English. However, rather than seeing important differences due to socioeconomic levels, there seem to be differences based on the type of school, as school #2 which is a school with a special curricular emphasis on the teaching of English shows across the different variables higher connections with the language and which could explain the differences seen in the variables about contact with native speakers and the personal use of the language with friends or family. This could demonstrate that whilst socio-economic levels might have some explanatory power, the school curriculum could also be just as important in defining student connection with foreign languages such as English for the Chilean student body.

In addition to personal connection with the language, student satisfaction with their English classes and the language itself were also evaluated as seen in Table 1. The students responded using a Likert scale from 1 to 5, with 5 representing high levels of satisfaction. Again, the socio-economic level for the cases studied does not seem to be an explanatory factor for the statistically significant differences between the means for each of the variables. Furthermore, the students generally reported an overall satisfaction with the language and the class but with a slightly higher interest for the language in comparison with the English classes.

Interpretation of Language Orientations

This study aimed to identify the language orientations that the EFL students in Chile conceptualise and identify with, with the hope to help educators better understand the student motivations and perceptions towards the study of English in Chile. Although the cluster analysis led to the selection of five-cluster models, through the student interviews, six different language orientations were identified. Moreover, it was with the student interviews where it was made clear that these orientations were also divided into two larger categories: one group of orientations that students relate more to what currently takes place in the EFL classroom and the other group seems to more closely represent the motivations of the students towards wanting to acquire the English language. This larger division between the language orientations should be taken as a concern because it demonstrates a perceived separation of what occurs in the classroom and the actual motivators for the Chilean students studied across socio-economic levels. Originally, there was a supposition that the language orientations of the students would be influenced by the socio-economic level; however, there were no significant differences seen in the present study between the language orientations conceived by the students in the HCA and MDS analysis nor between the language orientations identified as being connected to personal use or the classroom.

Figure 1.: FourDimension MDS Configuration for School 1

Figure 2.: Four-Dimension MDS Configuration for School 2.

Figure 3.: Three-Dimension MDS Configuration for School 3.

Figure 4.: Four-Dimension MDS Configuration for School 4.

The language orientations identified that were more frequently related to the EFL classroom were the belief that (1) English is a school subject, (2) English is a tool which can be leveraged and (3) the perception that English is a set of structures (grammatical, semantical and phonological). In addition, the language orientations more frequently related to outside of the classroom were the perspectives that English can be a means of communication, a means of social interaction and the recognition of English having a cultural connection. These six orientations are briefly described below on the basis of the cluster analysis and the student interviews.

English as a Subject. Similar to other EFL contexts (Warden & Lin, 2000), one of the identified language orientations conceptualised English as a mere subject that makes up part of the mandatory national curriculum. Here, the concept of obligation was mentioned by the students from the different schools, but interestingly, there was no personal sensation of obligation expressed, only an acknowledged feeling of obligation in their peers. This can be seen in the following student statement which demonstrates the peer recognised obligation and the recognition of student satisfaction with academic achievement:

‘…obviamente como están como desesperados aprendiendo inglés a la fuerza para poder tener azul…’ [obviously since they are desperately studying English by force to be able to have a passing grade] (student 3, school 3).

‘hay algunos que estudian mucho, después les va bien, y eso de verdad que como que sienten algo, su recompensa’ [there are some that study a lot, afterwards they do well, and truly they feel something, the compensation] (student 3, school 3).

English as a Tool. This orientation sees English as a global language that would prove to be useful in future professional, academic and self-realisation contexts. The major emphasis was placed on the benefits that the language could bring a student and relates well with the instrumental orientation identified in the discourse of the Chilean media (Glas, 2008). However, it was also tightly connected to the previous orientation in many of the dendrograms. Additionally, in the student responses, there seemed to be a lack of clarity at times about the specific role the language and formal coursework play in obtaining the commonly referenced professional benefits, thereby leading to the description of six orientations rather than only the five identified through the cluster analysis.

Mechanical English. This orientation had the most uniform structure across the four different participating establishments. It conceptualised English as a set of structures recognising that as a language, English is composed of grammar structures, vocabulary and phonetics which should be studied and learned to be able to use the language. Many of the students when discussing this orientation often referred to these structures as the content of their English courses in the schools, which could also be a manifestation of the emphasis on the more traditional grammar translation method rather than a communicative approach which has been noted by many researchers in the classroom (Germany & Cartes, 2000; McBride, 2009; Rojas et al., 2013) and in the teacher methodology course at the university (Martin, 2016). This can be seen in the student response explaining the following:

‘si sumo todo aprendo el inglés…es que si tengo eso prácticamente sabría inglés’ [if I sum up everything I learn English…that is if I have this I practically know English] (student 2, school 3).

This demonstrates the student’s limited view of language as a set of structures, an understanding that the comprehension of grammar structures, vocabulary and pronunciation leads to a complete knowledge of English.

English as a Means of Communication. Similar to the descriptive language orientation described by Kono (2001), the students defined this orientation as one that sees English as a means to be able to communicate with others but with a focus on the expression and comprehension of the communication. This cluster was commonly formed by phrases related to the expression of messages, ideas and emotions as seen in the following student response:

‘…sería como un inglés comunicacional, más enfocado a como uno puede expresarse, o de decir cierta palabra con cierto tono de voz, con todo eso, como uno puede entender a la otra persona también, y en el fondo, entenderse, comunicarse, entender el inglés de la otra persona y que esa persona también te entienda el inglés tuyo’ […it would be like a conversational English, more focused on how someone can express themselves or can say a certain word with a certain tone of voice, with all this, how someone can also understand another person, and in the end, be understood, communicate understand the English of another person and that this person also understands your English] (student 3, school 3)

English as a Means of Social Interaction. Whilst the previous orientation was focused on the use of the language to communicate ideas and messages, this orientation focuses on the ability of the language to connect individuals. The students explained that English could be a means to socialise with others around the world, allowing them to increase their network of friends. As Chile is a country that uses English more as a foreign language rather than a second language, this recognition of English as a means of social interaction becomes more comprehensible with the students’ declaration of having English-speaking friends through the Internet, again a tendency that was seen across socio-economic groups. Below is a representative student response highlighting the following:

‘…cuando uno sabe otro idioma puede hablar con muchas más personas y puede conocer aún más personas, hay más posibilidades de hacer cosas nuevas y de divertirse, de relacionarse con más personas’ […when you know another language, you can talk with many more people and can meet even more people; there are more possibilities to do new things and to have fun, to interact with more people] (student 1, school 1)

English as a Cultural Aspect. Through the cluster analysis, it was recognised that the students understand that English is connected to culture. Notwithstanding, the depth of the understanding of this perspective was extremely superficial and could be a sign of a weakness in the teaching and learning of cultural objectives. Part of this limited understanding is due to the students’ lack of understanding that language itself can be a cultural act, as much of the explanations given in the interviews recognised that the language is connected to certain cultural groups who have their own customs and traditions none of those mentioned relating to the use of language, as seen in the following student response:

“‘Yo creo que cuando se aprende inglés se puede aprender otra cultura de otros países, ya que sabemos lo que están diciendo, como por ejemplo nos pueden decir que se hace tal cosa allá, y podemos descubrir que aquí no se hace y allá si’ [I believe that when you learn English, you can learn other cultures from other countries, since we know what they are saying, like for example they can tell us that they do certain things, and we can discover that here we don’t do that and there they do] (student 2, school 1)

This lack of understanding of language being a cultural phenomenon is especially worrisome if the students express that their ideal goals for the language is to interact with others around the globe, as they will not have the intercultural communication skills to handle those situations. In addition, if the classrooms continue to be focused on the teaching of the content identified in the mechanical English orientation, then this lack of intercultural communication skills will continue to lag, thereby limiting the future abilities of the Chilean students to benefit from the use of the language.

Language Orientations and Context Associations

To understand how the students visualised the use of the orientations within their daily lives using the card-sorting instrument, they were asked to associate three variables with their languagelearning experience in the classroom and three variables to their use of language with family and/ or friends. Using the results for the HCA and MDS analysis, the variables associated in this task were assigned to one of the six identified clusters to see which language orientations were most frequently associated with the two different contexts. Tables 2 and 3 present the frequency with which the cluster membership variables were associated with each of the two contexts (inside and outside the classroom).

Table 2 shows the language orientations that were associated with the EFL classroom, where it is seen that across the four schools, the most commonly associated orientations were English as a subject, Mechanical English and English as a tool. When compared with Table 3, it is seen that the students more frequently associated the orientations related to communication and interaction with the outside of the classroom. The reason why this distinction is highly important was seen in the student interviews, where the students from the four different establishments explained how their interests and motivations to study English stem more from the desire to communicate and interact with others. Thus, it would seem logical to think that if teachers want to ensure student motivation in the EFL classroom, this stark division between those orientations perceived to be used in the classroom and those orientations that reflect student interest must be eliminated.

Table 2.: Language Orientations Associated with the EFL Classroom.

Table 2. Language Orientations Associated with the EFL Classroom.

Table 3.: Language Orientations Associated with Language Use with Friends and/or Family.

Table 3. Language Orientations Associated with Language Use with Friends and/or Family.

The question that follows then is about the origin of the perception of the students about the language orientations used in the classroom. Through classroom observations, several phenomena were observed which could be leading the students to perceive differences between their personal language orientations and those perceived of the classroom. The phenomenon observed and which will be explained in the following paragraphs was the unintentional dialogue about the language orientations, the lack of explanation about the learning objectives and focus on language content rather than communication.

Lack of Consciousness about Language Orientations Employed. In the eight different classes observed, there was almost no evidence of deliberate dialogue between the students and the teachers about the purpose of the activities planned and executed in the class. Ergo, the student perceptions of the language orientations of the English classroom were intuitively formed as the large majority of the teacher discourse was characterised by behaviour correction and content instruction with a noticeable absence of the reason for the learning objectives and content. The lack of intentional dialogue between the students and the teachers was also identified in the student interviews when asked about the reasons why their teachers wanted them to learn English, where the students frequently demonstrated a limited understanding of the teachers’ language orientation as seen in the following response:

‘Aparte de porque tiene que trabajar; o aparte de porque es su trabajo; Yo creo porque a ella le gusto aprender inglés porque le gusta aprender idiomas’ [A part from because she has to work, or because it is her job, I think because she likes to learn English because she likes to learn languages] (student 2, school 1)

Lack of Discussion about Learning Objectives. As observed in the classroom observations, the learning objectives continue to be mostly absent from the class. Whilst the majority of the students heard or received in writing the learning objectives, none of the observed students received an explanation of the stated objective or why this objective was important to achieve. The explanation of the learning objective is understood to be essential for students so that they have a clear understanding of the goal they are working towards during the class and have a clear comprehension of how the day’s goal fits into a large scope.

Focus on ‘Academic’ Orientations. Similar to the perceptions of the students, much of the activities and selected content centred around those variables belonging to the orientations that consider English as a subject and English as a set of structures. This was seen in frequent grammar and vocabulary acquisition activities that were also not contextualised to oral or written communication. Comprehension of grammar structures and vocabulary is important for communicating and understanding messages, but the activities observed did not focus on using the grammar structures nor vocabulary for this purpose. An example is a vocabulary activity that asked the students to recall a list of memorised vocabulary words, and upon completion, neither the teachers nor the students incorporated these individual words in their speech again, reinforcing the idea for the students that the purpose of the class is on learning the provided content but not necessarily utilising this content to communicate and interact with others.